Yojana February

Theme - Indian Literature

Quotes: “Books are infinite in number and time is short. The secret of knowledge is to take what is essential.  Take that and try to live up to it” – Swami Vivekananda “India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend and the great grandmother of tradition”. - Mark Twain

Syllabus: GS Paper – I (Art & Culture)- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times

Oral Tradition and Indian Literature

• A large portion of ancient Indian literature is a manifestation of the spoken word and it belongs to the oral tradition as far as its preservation is concerned. The Vedas have been preserved without the loss of a single syllable through a complex and intricate system of recital down the centuries.
• The essential culture of India is embodied by a living individual who not only interprets the norms of culture but also acts as a frame of reference.
• Ancient India had both ‘writing’ and ‘speech’ and the basic distinction between them defined their functions too. We have poetic works which are ‘written’ and those which are ‘orally transcribed’.
• The works of Pampa, the first Kannada poet of the 10 Century, have the characteristics of a written work. Pampa composed the historical narrative of the Mahabharata and presented it as an ‘inscription’ to the world.
• The immediate purpose of Pampa’s epic was to commemorate the historical deeds of his patron- prince, Arikesari. Pampa’s effort was to convert the narrative of the Mahabharata preserved by the oral tradition into a written text.
• Pampa found contemporary history as exciting as that of the Mahabharata and what he presented in his poem is the metaphorical relation between the two ages.

Written and Oral Form

• The oral tradition in India is still prevalent, especially in the area of folk literature. The ballad singers have a rich repertory of a variety of songs which they sing to a large audience.
• The plays performed by Talamaddale groups are without a dramatic script and even the plays called ‘Sannatas’ are, to a great extent, improvised.
• The works belonging to the oral tradition continue to change in the form and detail depending upon the demands of the audience.
• The author in a written tradition is necessarily absent while in the oral tradition he is present and therefore the form of the poetic work depends upon the physical, Creative stamina of the author. This also explains the fact that as to why the poetry of Bhakti tradition belongs to the oral tradition
• The poetry of devotion addresses itself to God whose supreme presence it celebrates. Two such great examples are Harihara and Kumaravyasa. Kumaravyasa, like Pampa, sought to retell the story of the Mahabharata in Kannada. But his purpose, unlike that of Pampa was to revive the oral tradition.

Co-existence of Oral and Written Tradition in India

• All Indian languages, except Sanskrit, when they reached the status of writing, continued to develop their literature, drawing inspiration from both written and oral traditions.
• In India, the oral tradition does not belong to a pre-literate age representing a primary condition of civilisation. On the other hand, both traditions can Co-exist in a given period of Indian history.
• The main reason for this curious co-existence of these traditions is the fact that these two traditions, although they represent separate sets of values, are not ethically different from each other.
• Literacy in India is not the only way to cultural and spiritual experiences. Many of our mystics and saints have been illiterate but have produced classical poetry.
• Nrupatunga, a writer of the 9th century, says that ‘the Kannada people are skilled in the art of producing poetry although they cannot read’. The statement suggests a possibility of profound aesthetic and poetic experience which is not denied to an illiterate person.

Conclusion

• The written tradition in Indian literature starts with the modern period since almost all the writers are literate. Poetry is now being read rather than being heard. The effect of this written tradition is most felt in the metrical structure of modern poetry.
• We don’t know what will happen to the oral tradition in modern times of urbanisation and industrialisation.
• The best we can do is to preserve some of the skills from total extinction.
• Syllabus: GS Paper – I (Art & Culture)- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times

Tholkappiam: The Ancient Grammar

Tholkappiam

• Tholkappiam, a grammatical treatise in Tamil, is the most ancient one, the age of which is considered by most as the fifth or sixth century B.C.

• It deals with the written and spoken Tamil versions that prevailed in Tamil land.
• It is a three-fold work dealing with the alphabets, words, content and form.
• Tholkappiam was presented before the learned audience of the Pandya king named Nilamtharu thriuvil Pandian.
• The Chairperson at that time was Athankottu Asan. This Athankottu Asan had been an exponent of ethical justice and had mastery in the four Vedas.
• The author of Tholkappiam is Tholkappiar, which is his proper name, and the work by him is named with that.

Structure and composition of the Work

Tholkappiam is a grammatical work and itis composed of three major divisions.

They are:

1. Eluththu Athikaram— the chapter on the alphabets.
2. Col Athikaram — the chapter on the words
3. Porul Athikaram — the chapter on the content and form.

Content

• Tholkappiam states that the Tamil land was ruled by three famous munificent patrons. In the prefatory verse of Tholkappiam, there is the mention of the name of the Pandya king.
• The Pandya king had afforded the dwelling sites to the Tamil people who had lost their land in a vast deluge. An apparent reference to this is found in ‘Kalitokai’, one of the Sangam classical anthologies.
• The prefatory verse of Tholkappiam denotes the southern boundary of Tamil land was ‘Kumari’ which actually represents the Kumari hills. In those days, the Tamil land existed between the Venkatam hills and Kumari hills.
• Among the eight anthologies of Sangam age, ‘Ahananuru’ refers in three verses to the invasion of Maurya kings over the southern region.
• Nandas are also referred to in Sangam poetry. Tholkappiam had emerged long before the period of Mauryas and Nandas.

 Indus Valley civilisation and Tamil

• The Indus Valley civilisation is of the ancient Tamil speaking people, and the script found there, deciphered by Rev. Fr. Heras and Sir John Marshal, clearly shows the identity with the Tamil existing script.
• Askoparpola and Iravatham Mahadevan had stated the Indus script is the native product and they are owned by Tamils. Tamils of ancient Tamil land are used to burn the dead. The excavations of Indus Valley also show the same practice.
• So, Tholkappiam had its origin from many ancient sources, including that of the Indus Valley.

Syllabus: GS Paper – I (Art & Culture)- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times

Urdu Language and Literature

• Urdu is an Indo-Aryan language.
•  Urdu as a language began taking shape around 10^th century in areas surrounding Delhi and was the result of the admixture of Shauraseni Apabhransh, Khariboli and Brij Bhasha with Persian, Arabic and Turkish words.
• In the earlier period, the language was also referred to as Hindi, Hindvi and Rekhta before it finally came to be called by the name Urdu around 18^th century.

Evolution

• As Urdu was evolving, it was looked down upon by the then ruling elite for writing and literature. It was perceived as common people’s language as opposed to the court language, Persian.
• However, the Urdu words had started making their way into the sayings and poetic works of Nizamuddin Aulia (1238-1325), Amir Khusro (1253-1325), Baba Farid (1173-1266), Namdev (1270- 1350), Kabir (1398-1448) and Guru Nanak (1469-1539).
•  Urdu shares with Hindi a similarity in phonology and grammar.
• The Khangahs (hospices) and Dargahs of Sufi saints like Nizamuddin Aulia, became hubs of inter- religious and interregional interaction which also helped in the evolution of a composite language like Urdu.
• As a result of these interactions, Urdu travelled to places like Daulatabad, Gulbarga, Golconda etc., in Deccan after the 14^th Century or so. Unlike the Delhi Sultanate, the newly formed kingdoms in the Deccan patronised the Urdu language and poetic works started making their appearance on the literary scene.
• Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the ruler of Golconda himself composed poetry in Telugu, Persian and Urdu.
• Amir Khusro wrote beautiful poetry which paved the way for the future poetic journey of the Urdu language.

• Urdu language and literature touched its peak in the 19^th and 20^th centuries. It was preceded by the educational and social reform movement of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan who founded the MAO College at Aligarh in 1877.
• He rejected the idea of literary works being confined to dealing with love and beauty and wild imagination. The Aligarh School inspired poets and writers like Altaf Hussain Hali to write educative and reformist poetry.
• A significant milestone in Urdu literature was the launch of the progressive movement in literature

with Mulk Raj Anand and Sajjad Zaheer in 1935.

• At the first All India Progressive Writers conference held at Lucknow in 1936 and presided by Munshi Premchand, it was made clear that the canons of appreciating beauty have to be changed.
• Later, the progressives were accused of ideological extremism and making literature a tool of communist propaganda. The strong reaction to their propaganda literature came in the form of a modernist trend.

Urdu Poetry

• The first recorded collection of poetry is attributed to Wali Dakhani. In the eighteenth century, Urdu poetry touched new heights with the arrival of Mir Taqi Mir. Mir is said to have captured a phase of the melancholy and the pathetic in a decaying Society.
• A unique poet in the history of Urdu literature is Nazeer Akbarabadi (1740-1830) who digresses from contemporary traditional poetry and concerns himself with the affairs of the mundane. He was a mystic. Krishna and Mahadeo, Nanak and Narsi Bhagat find a mention in his poems.
• The nineteenth century is considered to be a golden period of Urdu literature. It produced poets like Zauq, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Momin and Ghalib. Ghalib is considered to be a great Urdu poet who added wit and intellect to the emotions and sensitivities of poetic expression.

Urdu Prose

• The first recorded pieces of Urdu prose in Deccani Urdu are found around the 15^th century. The earlier prose is mostly the teachings of the Sufi saints to their disciples.
• The first significant work of literary prose is “Sabras” by Wajhi in 1635. In the North, Karbal Katha is considered to be the first piece of prose written in 1731.
• To teach British Officials Indian languages like Hindi and Urdu, the Governor General Lord Wellesley established the Fort William College at Kolkata in July 1800.
• The Urdu novel traces its roots in Dastaan or long fairy tales. However, novelists like Nazeer Ahmad (1836- 1912) were first to deal with themes of quotidian life.
• Mirza Hadi Ruswa wrote the famous novel Umrao Jaan Ada.
•  The turning point in Urdu fiction came with the arrival of Munshi Premchand.
• His simple language and straightforward style transformed the contours of fiction writing.

Urdu Journalism

• The first Urdu newspaper Jam-i-Jahan Numa was launched in Kolkata in 1822 by Harihar Dutta. He was the son of Tara Chand Dutta, an eminent Bengali journalist and founder of Sambad Kaumudi, a Bengal weekly.
• The editor of Delhi Urdu Akhbar, Mohammad Bagar was shot dead by a British government official Major William Hudson for his involvement in the 1857 rebellion. He was the first Urdu journalist to sacrifice his life for the freedom struggle.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad’s newspapers Al-Hilal and Al-Balagh and Mohammad Ali Jauhar’s papers Comrade and Hamdard took up the cudgels against the British rule.
• National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Education. It was established to promote, develop and propagate the Urdu language.

Conclusion

• Urdu is an important Indian language which is included in the eighth schedule of the Indian constitution.
• As more users shift to reading on digital devices and formats, the language and its script will also have to adapt to the same to reach its target readership.
• Syllabus: GS Paper – I (Art & Culture)- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times

Post-Independence Hindi Literature

• The violence and cruelty witnessed during the partition and subsequent communal riots put a deep scar on the psyche of the people. This sorrow was reflected in the writings of some Hindi writers.
• Agyeya is the most notable writer among them. His book titled ‘Sharnarthee’ (Refugees) published in 1948 contained these poems compiled under the same title and Stories based on prevailing communal tension and violence of those times.

Different Trends

• Before independence, two prominent trends were prevalent in Hindi poetry. One of these was the progressive (Pragatisheel) poetry, patronised by poets like Nagarjun, Kedarnath Agarwal, Dinkar, etc.
•  The other stream was of the Experimentalist (Prayogvaadee) poetry, led by Agyeya. It started with Taarsaptak (1943) and Doosra Saptak (1951) — both were collections of the poems of seven poets each. This stream was established as Nai Kavita (New Poetry).
• Different literary movements flourished after independence in the realm of Hindi literature — from Nai Kavita (New Poetry) and Nai Kahani (New Story) to Progressive and Janvadi (People’s) stories and poetry writing.
• Simultaneously, Aanchlik (literature reflecting dialectical regional variations) literary trends in stories also flourished, prominently in the writings of Phanishwar Nath Renu, Nagarjun, Shivprasad Singh and others. The poems of these new poets opened new vistas of social realities, as well as of romanticism.
• The ‘New Story’, parallel to the ‘New Poetry’, was centred around the evolution of middle-class creativity. The thought process of the proponents of the ‘New Poetry’ and the ‘New Story’ centred around individuality.
• To establish that individuality, a discourse was started on ‘honesty and authenticity of creative experience’ (Abhivyakiti Kee Imandaaree) in poetry, and ‘self-experienced reality’ (Bhogaa Hua Yatharth) in stories.
• Sometimes, ‘self-experienced reality’ was extended to the crass depiction of ‘lived reality/ indulgement’ (Bhog ke Yatharth) whose extreme forms were witnessed in ‘Akavita’ and ‘Akahani’ (‘Non-story’ and ‘Non-poetry’, i.e., creative expressions that go beyond the usual ambit and format of stories and poems).
• In the realm of Hindi literary criticism, a clash of realistic and individualistic trends was witnessed during 1950s and 1960s on the one hand, while traditions were being evaluated on the other.
• During this period, some old genres of writing faded away and some new genres emerged. The most important fading genre was Gadya Kavya (poetic prose), while very few Lalit Nibandhs (Aesthetic Essays) were written after independence. Satirists like Harishankar Parsai established Satire as an independent genre.
• Kavva Natak (drama in poetic form) is an important emerging genre. Dharamvir Bharati, Dushyant Kumar and Naresh Mehta wrote such plays. However, this genre could not be sustained for long.
• Reportage was also a new genre, practiced prominently by Dharamvir Bharati and Phanishwar Nath Renu.

Impact of Post - Independence Social & Political Events on Hindi Literature

• Sometimes, social and political events influence literary trends in a decisive manner. After 20 years of independence, in 1967, Hindi literature took a definitive direction.
• First was the emergence of a new political awakening resulting in a severe jolt to the ruling party. The other was the revolutionary struggle of the farmers who were continuously exploited by ruling vested interests.
• A new trend of secular writings started in Hindi literature around the 1980s. Some Muslim writers like Shaani, Asgar Wajahat and Abdul Bismillah, Rahi Masoom Raza continued writing on such themes.
• Women’s writing emerged with a new gusto in Hindi literature around the 1980s. Among old generation writers of this stream were Krishna Sobti, Mannu Bhandari and Usha Priyamwada; followed by the new-comers like Chitra Mudgal, Raji Seth and many others.
• Mahadevi Verma, in her ‘Shrinkhala kee Kadiyan’ (Links of a Chain) deliberated upon the issue of women’s emancipation..

After 1990s

• Capitalism was spreading in India with its new banner of globalisation. People were getting intoxicated by the emerging consumerism and the market culture.
• The new generation of writers are facing the dual pressure of globalisation and cultural nationalism. This pressure is reflected in their writings in different shades of anger, depression, tensions and disappointment.
• In the 1990s, Dalit writings emerged in Hindi literature. They enriched literature with their self- realisation and experiences. They made literature a vehicle of their emancipation in oppressive Indian society.
• Dalit writers are expressing their new anxieties and awareness related to their past, present and future. This corpus of writings has been christened as ‘Dalit Vimarsh’ (Dalit Discourse). Prominent among Hindi Dalit writers are: Omprakash Valmiki, Jaiprakash Kardam, Dharamvir Bharati etc.
• Tribal people have their mother tongues, in which they have continuously been expressing their joys and sorrows, tortures and their resistance. Earlier, their literature was oral, but now, after their languages/dialects are developing their scripts, their literature has started coming in written form.
• Discussions are going on different aspects of tribal life, history, crises and different shades of exploitation and suppression and a new ‘Adivasi Vimarsh’ (Tribal Discourse) has emerged.
• Ramanika Gupta played a vital role in bringing out the realities and problems of Indian tribal life and society before Hindi readers. Besides tribal writers like Nirmala Putul, Anuj Lugun, Rose Kerketta, some non-tribal writers are also writing on the realities and issues related to tribal life.

Conclusion

• The present world of Hindi literature is witnessing neither any mass movement nor an effective literary movement. Therefore, writers themselves have to carve out a creative relationship with their society and times.

Syllabus: GS Paper – I (Art & Culture)- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times

Marathi Literature

• The journey of Marathi literature begins with the old Yadav Dynasty and flows down to the present limes. ‘

Medieval Movements and their impact on Marathi Literature

• Nath Panth is a medieval movement. It combined ideas from Buddhism, Shaivism and Yoga traditions of India. Gorakhnath is considered the originator of the Nath Panth.
• Nath tradition has extensive Shaivism related to the logical literature of its own, most of which is traceable to the 11^th century or later.
• The Nath tradition was influenced by other Indian traditions such as Advaita Vedanta monism. Further, Nath Panth influenced movements like Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Mahanubhav Panth and Bhakti Movement.
• Mahanubhav Panth was founded by Sarvadnya Shri Chakradhar Swami in 1100-1200. This cult accepted all members irrespective of their castes. These sects, through literatures, tried to describe incarnations of Gods and explain the philosophies.
• Leela Charitra is thought to be the first biography written in the Marathi language. It was written by Mhaimbhat (1278).

Origin and Growth of Marathi Literature

• The origin and growth of Marathi literature is directly linked with the rise of the Yadava dynasty. Around the middle of the 12^th century, the Yadavas declared independence.
• The Yadavas of Devagiri used Marathi as their court language.
• Bhakti movement ignited the minds of countless poor and downtrodden people. Saints like Dnyaneshwar and Vitthal sang in their local, colloquial language. People in large numbers began to attract to Warkari sect.
• Namdev flourished some years after this period. He was a tailor by caste and profession. However, poetic genius was quite ready at his service, and he wrote a great many ‘Abhangas’ on devotion to God. This we may call the first or early period of Marathi literature. It extended from 1200-1350 A.D.
• From the middle of the 14^th century till the beginning of the 16^th century was a completely blank period in Marathi literature.