Beyond-classroom

TYPES OF FORTS:

The forts in the Indian subcontinent are influenced by the landscape, culture, and aesthetics of the ruling classes.

• Arthasashtra, an ancient Indian political treatise, classifies forts based on their physical nature, which remains a foundational aspect in studying Indian forts.
• This classification system provides a fundamental understanding of the forts in the region, reflecting the diverse heritage and political landscape of India.
• Forts may be classified as:
• 1. Dhanva Durg or Desert Fort: This type of fort is surrounded by a desert or an arid stretch of land which can inhibit the swift movement of enemies.
• 2. Mahi Durg or Mud Fort: This type of fort is protected by earthen walls and ramparts. Walls constructed of bricks and stones can also come under this category.
• 3. Jala Durg or Water Fort: This type of fort is surrounded by water bodies which could either be natural (sea or rivers) or artificial (moats, artificial lakes etc.)
• 4. Giri Durg or Hill Fort: This type of fort is situated on either the summit of a hill or a valley that is surrounded by hills.
• 5. Vriksha or Vana Durg, or Forest Fort: This type of fort has a thick forest cover as a preliminary line of defense.
• 6. Nara Durg or fort protected by soldiers: This type of fort primarily relies on man-power, i.e., a strong army to defend itself.
• Many a time, the forts of India display a combination of these categories. For example, the Jaisalmer Fort is also a hill fort in addition to being a desert fort. The Kalinjar Fort is a Giri Durg as well as a Vana Durg. The Gagron Fort of Rajasthan combines the features of a water fort and a hill fort..
• 7. Palace Forts: Fort complexes, including palaces for royalty and nobility, can transition from military outposts to administrative and residential hubs. Some forts serve dual purposes as strategic military stations and residential centers.
• 8. City Forts: Forts can attract populations and lead to the development of cities nearby. Existing cities were sometimes enclosed within fortifications for protection, with complexes including schools, worship areas, residential quarters, palaces, and farms.

• 9. Trading Forts: Forts were built as hubs for commercial and financial activities, with some evolving from warehouses or trade links to fortified structures for protection. European forts in India exemplify this transformation.

CHAPTER 2: IMPORTANCE OF FORTS

Forts in ancient India played a crucial role not only in warfare but also in shaping the social, economic, and cultural landscape:

MILITARY DEFENSE:

• Impregnable Outposts: For centuries, forts were the primary line of defense against invaders. Strategically located on hills or near water bodies, they boasted thick walls, clever designs (bastions, gateways), and innovative features (moats, machicolations) to repel attacks. Examples include Gwalior Fort (Madhya Pradesh) and Mehrangarh Fort (Rajasthan).

POLITICAL POWER:

• Symbols of Authority: Forts served as a tangible display of a ruler’s power and prestige. Their grandeur, showcased through intricate architecture and expensive materials, sent a strong message to both the populace and rivals. The Red Fort in Delhi is a prime example.

ECONOMIC HUBS:

• Thriving Centers: Beyond military purposes, forts often housed royal courts, administrative centers, and vast storehouses. Trade routes often converged near or passed through forts, facilitating commerce and generating revenue. Cities like Agra, initially built around Agra Fort, flourished due to their proximity.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CENTERS:

• Cradle of Culture: The secure environment within forts fostered the blossoming of art, music, and literature. Royal patronage within the fort walls nurtured diverse artistic expressions. Additionally, temples and other religious structures were often integrated into fort complexes, making them significant cultural and religious centers. The intricate murals of Chittorgarh Fort or the serene Eklingji Temple within Mehrangarh Fort exemplify this.

ARCHITECTURAL INNOVATION:

• Testing Grounds: Fort construction in India witnessed remarkable feats of engineering. Architectural styles evolved over centuries, incorporating influences of various dynasties. The use of sloping walls to deflect cannonballs during the Mughal era exemplifies such innovation. Forts also served as testing grounds for novel defensive techniques and technologies, shaping warfare in the subcontinent.

ENDURING LEGACY:

• Windows to the Past: Even today, forts stand as captivating testaments to India’s vibrant past. They are not only tourist destinations but also a treasure trove of information for historians and archaeologists. Studying these forts allows us to piece together the political tapestry, cultural nuances, and architectural brilliance of bygone eras.

CHAPTER 3- HISTORY OF FORTS IN ANCIENT INDIA

Ancient period saw the rise and fall of numerous empires and dynasties across the subcontinent. Forts from this era exhibit great diversity and do not follow a linear pattern of development. They reflect a synthesis of indigenous architectural traditions as well as those introduced by conquerors and adventurers.

EXAMPLES OF ANCIENT INDIAN FORTS:

• Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE): Kot Diji and Dholavira showcase early examples of fortified settlements.
• Iron Age (1200-300 BCE): Hill forts like Rajgir and Ahicchatra became prominent.
• Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE): Pataliputra, the capital, was a fortified city.

INDUS VALLEY PERIOD

• Indus Valley settlements were characterized by a clear division into a Citadel area and a Lower Town area, as seen in Mohenjodaro.
• The citadel area in Mohenjodaro was additionally surrounded by a moat.
• Kot Diji (3300 BCE) was a fortified site with a massive wall made of limestone rubble and mud-brick, containing a citadel complex and a lower residential area.
• Kalibangan (2920-2550 BCE) was surrounded by massive mud-brick fortifications.
• In the rocky regions of Kutch and Saurashtra, stone was extensively used in building fortified walls.
• Dholavira was fortified with an imposing wall made of stone rubble set in mud mortar, which is distinctive and not seen at other Harappan sites.
• While some scholars suggest these were not primarily defensive constructions, but rather protective embankments or social structures, the scale and nature of the fortifications indicate that they served a defensive purpose as well.
• The presence of such fortifications across the large area of the Indus Valley Civilization suggests that force and conflict were not completely absent during this period.

VEDIC PERIOD

• Evidence from the Vedic period comes primarily from literary sources rather than archaeological evidence.
• The Rig Veda mentions a Bharata king named Divodasa who defeated the Dasa ruler Shambara, who commanded many mountain fortresses.
• The Rig Veda also refers to tribes living in fortified settlements called Pura.
• The Aitereya Brahmana refers to three sacrificial Agnis (fires) as three forts that prevent the Asuras (demons) from disturbing the sacrifice.
• Indra is referred to in Vedic literature as Puramdara, or the “destroyer of forts”.

SECOND URBANIZATION IN INDIA (6TH CENTURY B.C. TO 3RD CENTURY B.C.):

• This period saw the emergence of the powerful Mahajanapadas or sixteen major kingdoms across India.
• The growth of these kingdoms led to increased warfare and the consequent need to strengthen military defenses and fortifications.
• Rajgir, the ancient capital of Magadha, had two cities - Old Rajagriha and New Rajagriha, both surrounded by stone fortification walls. The outer walls of Old Rajagriha date back to the 6th century BCE during the reign of Bimbisara, while the walls around New Rajagriha were built under Ajatashatru in the 5th century BCE.
• The Buddhist text Maha-Parinibbana-sutta mentions a fort built near Patali on the orders of Ajatashatru, which later developed into the city of Pataliputra.
• Other major fortified capitals included Champa (capital of Anga), Kaushambi (capital of Vatsa), Ahichchhatra (capital of Panchala), and Ujjayini (capital of Avanti).
• These cities typically had imposing mud or stone fortification walls, often with moats as additional defensive features.
• When Alexander the Great reached the boundaries of Magadha in 326 BCE, the Anabasis of Alexander described the walled cities with citadels on commanding heights and towers along the walls.

MAURYAN PERIOD

• After the fall of the Nanda Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan empire with the help of his minister Kautilya.
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra is a crucial source for understanding Mauryan military institutions and fortifications.
• The Arthashastra considers the fortified capital (durga) as one of the seven essential elements of the state.
• Kautilya provides detailed instructions on fort construction, recommending features like:
• Mud ramparts with brick or stone parapets
• Troops stationed along the fort walls
• Three moats filled with lotuses and crocodiles
• Adequate provisions to withstand sieges
• Secret escape routes
• Kautilya classifies forts into different categories based on their terrain and defensive features, such as desert forts, mud forts, water forts, hill forts, forest forts, and forts protected by loyal soldiers.
• After the last Mauryan king, Pushyamitra Shunga established the Shunga dynasty in 187 BCE. Fortifications from the Shunga period have been identified at Katragarh, with brick walls, a mud core, and a surrounding trench.

PENINSULAR INDIA (SANGAM PERIOD)

• The early Peninsular India was dotted with hundreds of forts, indicating the widespread use of fortifications.
• The concept of fully-built forts with mature architectural features like moats, turrets, and bastions had reached an advanced stage during the Sangam period.
• The forts were constructed using a variety of materials - mud, huge laterite blocks, or bricks. Brickbats and pebbles were used in later renovations to strengthen the ramparts.
• Larger forts were built around the capital cities of major kingdoms like Madurai, Kanchi, and Vanji, as well as important commercial centers.
• Smaller forts were also erected around royal palaces.
• One of the earliest South Indian forts with stone and brick construction was reported from Pudur village in Nellore, Andhra Pradesh. It had a rectangular plan and a massive 30-meter wide moat.
• The Sangam literature vividly describes the grandeur of the fort at Madurai, with its towering walls, wide gates, and a deep moat surrounded by dense forests.

GUPTA PERIOD

• The Gupta Empire encompassed a large part of the Indian subcontinent between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE.
• While the Gupta period is primarily known for its religious architecture, such as Buddhist and Jain cave temples and early Hindu temples, not much scholarly attention has been focused on the Gupta’s military architecture and fortifications.
• The Allahabad Pillar inscription records that during his southern expedition in the 4th century CE, Gupta emperor Samudragupta defeated a king named Svamidatta and captured the hill-forts of Mahendragiri and Kottura in the Ganjam region.
• The hill-fort of Mahendragiri was originally built by the early Ganga kings.
• The Garhwa Fort complex houses some of the oldest remains of the Gupta period, including 5th-6th century architectural relics of temples and tanks. However, the present-day square enclosure and parapets around the site were added by Raja Baghel Raja Vikramaditya of Bara in the 18th century.
• The Basarh fort in present-day Bihar, also known as Raja Bisal-ka-garh, is believed to have been constructed during the Gupta period.

RAJPUTS

• The rugged topography of Rajasthan, defined by the Aravalli hills, led to the widespread construction of forts by the Rajput clans.
• Rajput forts have a long history, with layers of construction over the centuries. Legends attribute the origins of some major forts like Chittorgarh, Gwalior, and Amer to earlier rulers.
• The Rajput forts that stand today were mostly built during the early medieval period, but continued to evolve into more complex and refined forms in the later medieval era.
• Characteristic features of mature Rajput forts include:
• Massive fortified gates flanked by watchtowers
• Multiple gates, often built to commemorate victories
• Ramparts with watchtowers at regular intervals
• Unique systems of tunnels and stairs within the ramparts
• Customized designs to accommodate different weapons like bows/arrows and later, cannons
• Reinforced walls to withstand cannon fire
• Dedicated areas for worship within the fort
• The Rajput forts reflect the strong clan loyalties and military prowess of the Rajput rulers, as well as their ability to adapt their fortifications to changing military technologies over time.

CHAPTER 4- HISTORY OF FORTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

The history of forts in medieval India is marked by continuous conflict, leading to the capture, destruction, and occupation of various forts over the centuries.

• Architectural changes in these forts mirrored the evolving landscape of the country. The medieval era saw significant developments in fort construction, closely intertwined with the military and political history of the region from the 13th to the 18th centuries.
• The history of forts in India during the medieval era reflects a continuation of the past, with forts changing hands, being captured, recaptured, destroyed, and occupied over the centuries.
• The Delhi Sultanate was established in the 13th century, with its foundations laid by Muhammad Ghuri and Qutbuddin Aibek, and formally established by Iltutmish.
• During this period, the Rajputs held sway over large parts of Northern India and built numerous monuments, including prominent forts.
• The architectural style that developed during the Delhi Sultanate period was a synthesis of indigenous traditions and influences from Central Asia.
• The Sultanate architecture involved the use of the arch and dome technique, which was borrowed from the Arabs and not a Turkish invention.
• The early Sultans of Delhi also fought against the onslaught of the Chaghtai Mongols on the North- western frontier, leading to the repair of the Lahore fort.
• Under Alauddin Khilji, forts became of prime importance for the Turkish rulers, and he captured prominent Rajput forts like Chittor, Ranthambore, and Jaisalmer.
• The Tughlaq dynasty introduced new architectural trends, such as building structures on high platforms and the use of ‘batter’ or sloping walls.
• The Bahmani Sultanate introduced Iranian architectural techniques in peninsular India, including the karez water supply system in the Bidar fort.
• The Mughal era saw the development of a syncretic architectural style, with influences from Persian, Indian, and other regional traditions.
• The introduction of artillery in the 16th century led to changes in fort architecture, with lower and thicker walls, bastions, and taller gates to accommodate elephants.

EXAMPLES OF MEDIEVAL INDIAN FORTS:

• Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur: A formidable fort perched on a hill, Mehrangarh boasts impressive fortifications and intricate palaces within its walls.
• Chittorgarh Fort, Rajasthan: This UNESCO World Heritage Site is known for its tragic history of Jauhar (self-immolation) by Rajput women and its sprawling complex.
• Jaigarh Fort, Jaipur: This majestic fort houses a vast cannon foundry and offers stunning views of Jaipur city.
• Gwalior Fort, Madhya Pradesh: An ancient hill fort with multiple dynasties leaving their mark, Gwalior Fort is a blend of Hindu and Muslim architecture.
• Jaisalmer Fort, Rajasthan: Nicknamed the “Golden Fort” due to its yellow sandstone, Jaisalmer Fort is a sprawling desert fortress known for its intricate carvings.
• Red Fort, Delhi: Built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, the Red Fort served as the seat of Mughal power for nearly 200 years and showcases Mughal architectural grandeur.
• Golconda Fort, Hyderabad: This fort, once a prominent diamond trading center, features innovative acoustic engineering and intricate gateways.
• Trichy Rock Fort, Tamil Nadu: This ancient fort perched on a massive rock is a significant religious site with temples from various dynasties.
• Junagadh Fort, Gujarat: Located atop Mount Girnar, this fort complex offers stunning views and houses Jain temples and other religious structures.

CHAPTER 5- HISTORY OF FORTS IN COLONIAL PERIOD

• The decline of the Roman Empire and the rise of Arab dominance over trade routes to India led the Europeans to seek a direct sea route to India. The Portuguese were the first to arrive in India in 1498 under Vasco da Gama, establishing trading factories in Calicut, Cannanore, and Cochin.
• To protect their trade interests, the Portuguese began fortifying their settlements, building the first fort - Fort Emmanuel in Kochi in 1503.
• The Portuguese presence was contested by the arrival of the Dutch, who founded their first factory in Masulipatnam in 1605.
• The Portuguese built Fort Aguada in Goa to defend against the Dutch, with features like a freshwater spring, bastions, moats, and a lighthouse.
• The Dutch eventually overpowered the Portuguese, capturing their trading centers and forts like the one in Kochi.
• The European powers used forts not only for trade protection, but also as sanctuaries against rebellions by indigenous rulers who resented their presence.
• Over time, the forts assumed a multi-functional role, serving as centers of commerce, military power, and colonial administration for the European powers in India.
• The struggle for monopoly and dominance over India’s lucrative trade in spices, textiles, and other goods was a key driver behind the construction of these European fortified settlements.
• In 1639, the ruler of Chandragiri granted the English permission to fortify their factory at Madras, which developed into the famous Fort St. George.
• Fort St. George was the first English fortress in India and evolved into a city fortress, with the “white town” of the fort and the “black town” of the surrounding city.
• The architecture of Fort St. George is typical of 17th-18th century British Baroque style, which had originated in Italy and traveled to India through the Portuguese.
• The English further enlarged Fort St. George in response to the arrival of the French East India Company, who established factories at Surat (1667) and Masulipatnam.
• The French also established a township near Calcutta, further intensifying the competition between the European powers in India.
• The construction of these fortified settlements by the English and other Europeans was driven by the need to protect their lucrative trading interests and establish dominance in the subcontinent.
• In the early 18th century, the French established Fort St. Louis in Pondicherry, which was designed based on plans by the famous French military engineer Vauban.
• Fort St. Louis had a pentagonal shape with five bastions and gates, as well as underground chambers for storing ammunition and other military supplies.
• The evolution of fort designs reflected the increasing engineering expertise and military considerations of the European powers as they expanded their presence and influence in India.

MODERN INDIAN FORTS:

• Cellular Jail, Port Blair (Andaman and Nicobar Islands): Built by the British in the late 19th century, this cellular jail was known for its solitary confinement cells and is now a national memorial.
• Fort William, Kolkata: Although founded in the 17th century, Fort William underwent significant expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries. It’s now an Indian Army Eastern Command headquarters.

CHAPTER 6- INDIA’S UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE FORTS

• Red Fort, Delhi:

• It was constructed in 1638 by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.
• It epitomizes India’s Mughal heritage.
• Built from red sandstone, it served as the Mughal emperors’ main residence for nearly two centuries.
• The fort is renowned for its imposing walls, the Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience), Diwan-i- Khas (Hall of Private Audience), and stunning architecture that merges Persian, Timurid, and Indian influences.

• Agra Fort, Uttar Pradesh:

• This grand red sandstone fort was the main residence of the Mughal dynasty until the capital moved to Delhi.
• It houses numerous exquisite structures, including the Jahangir Mahal, Khas Mahal, Diwan-i- Khas, Diwan-i-Aam, and the iconic Musamman Burj, where Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb.

• Amber Fort, Rajasthan:

• Also known as Amer Fort, this fort is perched on a hill overlooking Maota Lake.
• Constructed in the late 16th century by Raja Man Singh I, Amber Fort is celebrated for its artistic features, including large ramparts, a series of gates, cobbled paths, and the famous Sheesh Mahal (Mirror Palace).

• Chittorgarh Fort, Rajasthan:

• Spanning over 700 acres, Chittorgarh Fort is India’s largest fort and symbolizes Rajput valour and sacrifice. Its history dates back to the 7th century, and it includes notable structures like the Vijay Stambh (Victory Tower), Kirti Stambh (Tower of Fame), Rana Kumbha Palace, and the Padmini Palace.
• The fort has witnessed numerous battles, testifying to the bravery of its defenders.

• Jaisalmer Fort, Rajasthan:

• Built in 1156 by Rawal Jaisal, Jaisalmer Fort is one of the largest fully preserved fortified cities globally and remains inhabited, housing a quarter of the city’s population.
• It features numerous palaces, temples, and residential buildings, offering panoramic views of the desert landscape.

• Kumbhalgarh Fort, Rajasthan:

• Constructed by Rana Kumbha in the 15th century, Kumbhalgarh Fort is renowned for its massive walls, extending over 36 kilometers, making them some of the longest in the world.
• The fort complex includes numerous palaces, temples, and gardens and served as a refuge for the Mewar rulers during conflicts.

• Ranthambore Fort, Rajasthan:

  
• Situated within Ranthambore National Park, this fort was built in the 10th century by the Chauhan rulers.
• his majestic fort, guarded by the world’s second-longest wall (36 km), served as a refuge for Mewar rulers during conflicts.
• Known for its strategic hilltop location and formidable defenses, it played a crucial role in Rajasthan’s history, especially during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods.
• The fort complex includes temples, palaces, and reservoirs, offering stunning views of the national park and its wildlife.